CITY UNIVERSITY
COMMUNICATIONS POLICY IN PORTUGAL
AND ITS LINKS WITH THE EUROPEAN UNION
AN ANALYSIS OF THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING SECTORS
FROM THE MID-1980's UNTIL THE MID-1990's
BY HELENA SOUSA
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
LONDON, 1996
Table of Contents
Abstract
Acknowledgements
List of Tables
List of Abbreviations
Preface
Chapter I
General Introduction
1. Theme and Objectives
2. Scope of the Study
3. An Outline of the Chapters
Chapter II
International Relations, Theories of the State and
Portuguese Communications: A Theoretical Framework
1. Introduction
2. The Relevance of the IR Inter-paradigmatic Debate
2.1. Telecommunications: What case for Interdependency
2.2. Broadcasting: Dependency, 'Reverse' Dependency and the 'Cultural Industries'
Approach
2.3. Neo-realism and the Emphasis on the Nation-State
3. IR Integration Theories and the EU Communications Policy: What Can Be Proved
and Disproved?
3.1. Federalism and Pluralism
3.2. Functionalism, Neo-functionalism and the Spill-over Process
3.3. Consociationalism and the Anti-democratic Tendencies of the Elites
4. Theories of the State, the National Policy-making Process and Communications Policy
4.1. The Authoritarian Tradition
4.2. Elitism and the Concentration of Power
4.3. 'Limited' Pluralism and Non-decisions
4.4. The Portuguese 'Corporatism' and the Corporatist Come Back
4.5. Policy Networks and the Fragmentation of the Policy Analysis
5. Conclusion
Chapter III
The European Union and its Communications
Policy
1. Introduction
2. The EU in Context:
Other International Organisations in the Communications
Arena 54
3. The EU History and Politics 57 3.1. Brief
Historical Overview and the Neo-functionalist Integration Theory
3.2. Institutional Policy-making Framework
3.3. Lobbying and Interest Groups 67 4. The
EU Communications Policy
4.1. Telecommunications Policy
4.2. Broadcasting Policy
5. Conclusion: EU Communications Policy and
Portugal as a LFR
Chapter IV
Recent Political History of Portugal
1. Introduction
2. Profile of the Country
2.1. Geography
2.2. State and Society
2.3. The Economy
3. The Political Dictatorship (1926-1974)
3.1. A Brief Historical Overview
3.2. The Policy-making Process
4. The consolidation of a Democratic Regime
5. The Actual Political System
6. Conclusion:
The General Characteristics of the Portuguese
Communications Policy
Chapter V
The Evolution of Communications Policy in Portugal
1. Introduction
2. Telecommunications Policy
2.1. From the 19th Century until 1974
2.2. From 1974 until the late 1980's
3. Main Actors in the Telecommunications Arena
4. Broadcasting and Media Policy
4.1. The Salazarist Period
4.2. From 1974 until the early 1990's
5. Main Actors in the Broadcasting/Media Arena
6. Conclusion
Chapter VI
The Telecommunications Sector in Portugal
1. Introduction
2. Regional Policies
2.1. The Legal Framework
2.2. The R&D Programmes
2.3. The EU and the Expansion of Advanced Services in Portugal
3. National Policies
3.1. Opening up the Market to Competition
3.2. The Re-organisation of the Sector
3.3. The Privatisation of Portugal Telecom
3.4. The Political and Economic Relevance of the Sector
4. Conclusion
Chapter VII
The Broadcasting Sector in Portugal
1. Introduction
2. Regional Policies
3. Public Service, Commercial TV and Economic Issues
4. The Opening up of the Portuguese Market
5. Public Service Broadcasting in Portugal
5.1. Rádiotelevisão Portuguesa
5.1.1. Canal 1
5.1.2. TV2
5.1.3. RTPInternacional
5.1.4. RTP-Madeira and RTP-Açores
6. Commercial Television
6.1. Sociedade Independente de Comunicação
6.2. Televisão Independente
7. Satellite and Cable Television
8. Conclusion
Chapter VIII
General Conclusion
Bibliography
Abstract
This thesis is an attempt to bring politics into the sphere of communications. Taking Portugal as a case study, we will try to demonstrate that the current national telecommunications and broadcasting systems are neither the mere consequence of external forces and imperatives nor the result of economic and technological developments (though they have played a relevant part). Indeed, very concrete political decisions (and deliberate non-decisions) taken by ill-prepared national politicians under pressure from nationally-based lobbies lay behind the configuration of Portuguese communications. Though recognising the increasing external links of national communications and, specially, the flourishing EU binding legislation and non-binding recommendations, this study sustains that the main reasons why the Portuguese people get what they get should be examined closer at home, rather than in a intricate net of external political and economic connections.
The so-called liberal ideology which has swept the country since the mid-1980s, coinciding with the accession into the EEC and with the beginning of Cavaco Silva ten-year term in office, did not mean less 'state'. Quite on the contrary, there has been - as never before - an intensification of political intervention in the communications arena. Telecommunications were partly liberalised and the privatisation of the major operator, Portugal Telecom has started; in broadcasting, the public television monopoly was broken up and two national TV channels were allowed to operate. However, this programme of reforms was so crudely developed that further political intervention is required and a more consistent regulatory framework will prove to be indispensable.
Despite the technological convergence between
telecommunications and broadcasting, these two sectors have developed quite
differently and are still perceived as distinct policy areas. Being displayed
as essentially a technological issue, telecommunications did not attract
much public interest and the sector was re-restructured without proper
debate or consultation. The opening up of broadcasting to private companies
has brought in some discussion but - due to the political sensitivity of
the affair - the prime minister himself decided which would be the safest
pairs of hands to be granted the two TV licenses. From a political point
of view, telecommunications and broadcasting could hardly be further apart
and yet both reflect aspects of the general characteristics of the Portuguese
policy-making process. Inter-related attributes such as elitism and/or
limited pluralism, political and geographical centralisation, lack of expertise
and retreat on safe issues are observable in the way policies are conducted
in both sectors.
Acknowledgements
My first acknowledgement goes to my supervisor, Professor Jill Hills, whose contribution to this work could not have been greater. I am most grateful for her talent and generosity.
I am grateful to numerous people who contributed in so many ways to this work. Among them, I have to highlight those who managed to find the time to answer my questions and to discuss a wide range of issues often on a regular basis (titles might have changed since the empirical research was conducted):
· Mr Almeida, Robalo de - Chairperson, Instituto das Comunicações de Portugal (ICP)
· Mr Balsemão, Francisco Pinto - Chairperson of Sociedade Independente de Comunicação and former Prime Minister
· Dr Banks, Marion - Academic, Westminster
University
· Dr Cádima, Francisco Rui - Academic, Universidade Nova de Lisboa
· Mr Carneiro, Roberto - Chairperson of Televisão Independente and former Secretary of State for Education
· Mr Carvalho, Arons - Spokesperson for Communication issues, Portuguese Socialist Party
· Ms Casanova, Conceição - Information manager, Centro de Documentação e Informação da Portugal Telecom
· Ms Costa, Isilda - Legal adviser, Centro de Estudos das Telecomunicações, Aveiro
· Mr Cruz, Freitas - Chairperson of Rádiotelevisão Portuguesa
· Dr Cruz, Manuel Braga da - Academic, Instituto de Ciências Sociais, Universidade de Lisboa
· Dr Duarte, A. Manuel de Oliveira - Academic, Universidade de Aveiro
· Dr Espada, João Carlos - Academic, Instituto de Ciências Sociais, Universidade de Lisboa
· Mr Franco, Tiago - Director of Entrepreneurial Communication, Companhia Portuguesa Rádio Marconi, SA
· Ms Gonçalves, Maria Augusta - Journalist, Público newspaper
· Mr Louro, Soares - Former chairperson of Rádiotelevisão Portuguesa and of Rádiodifusão Portuguesa
· Mr Lucena, Manuel - Academic, Instituto de Ciências Sociais, Universidade de Lisboa
· Mr Junqueiro, Raul - President of Finacom - Telecomunicações, S.A. and former minister for telecommunications
· Mr Machado, Goulard - Journalist, Público
· Mr Martinez-Terrero, Jose - Researcher, Centre for the Study of Communications and Culture, St. Louis University
· Mr Matos, José Manuel Pereira de - Consumers representative at Instituto das Comunicações de Portugal
· Dr Mesquita, Mário - Academic, Universidade Nova de Lisboa
· Dr Oliveira, Manuel Paquete de - Academic, Instituto das Ciências do Trabalho e da Empresa
· Mr Panas, Roman - Information Services Executive, Communications and Information Technology (CIT)
· Mr Pereira, Paulo - TVTEL
· Dr Pinto, Manuel - Academic, Universidade do Minho
· Ms Rosado, Fátima - Direcção de Estudos e Planeamento, ICP
· Dr Traquina, Nelson - Academic, Universidade Nova de Lisboa
· Dr Tribolet, José - Director of INESC (Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores)
· Ms Vasco, Rute Sousa - journalist Público
· Mr Vasconcelos, António-Pedro - President of the Scale Programme for Portugal
Among the institutions/libraries/research centres I have worked on for this study, I am particularly grateful to staff and management of:
Biblioteca da Assembleia da República, Lisbon
Biblioteca do Instituto das Comunicações de Portugal, Lisbon
Centro de Documentação e Informação da Telecom Portugal/Portugal Telecom, Lisbon
Centro de Documentação da Revista Visão (formerly O Jornal)
Centro de Documentação do Jornal de Notícias, Oporto
Centro de Documentação do Público, Lisbon
Centro de Estudos de Telecommunicações, Aveiro
City University Library, London
Comissão Nacional do Programa STAR, Lisbon
Hemeroteca de Lisboa
London Business School Library
London School of Economic Library, London
Instituto das Comunicações de Portugal, Lisbon
Instituto Jurídico das Comunicações, Coimbra
Instituto Nacional de Estatística, Oporto
School of Oriental and African Studies Library, London
In addition, I have to mention the outstanding support of those I have worked with at City: Maria, Mouna, Abdelhamid, Vishnu, Naomi and Philip. I am grateful for the genuine interest in each others work, for very stimulant discussions and for the much needed encouragement. Maria deserves a special thanks for having become my most reliable Ph.D. consultant.
Back in Portugal, I am indebted to Pedro, Maria Augusta, Fernanda and Helder for having gathered crucial information when I just could not do it myself, for countless telephone numbers and, of course, for their support. Many thanks to Dr Paulo for having patiently printed early drafts of my work and for his computer advice. Also, I must thank São Viana for having so kindly received me in Lisbon during my endless working trips.
I cannot forget the support of my family: my brother and my sisters (and their partners!), my aunt and - in a very special way - my parents. During my stay in London, they all made their very best to keep me involved on the most important things in life (I mean, in our lives).
Finally, I want to thank Luis for having so
peacefully endured my Ph.D. most difficult times and (how could I possibly
forget...?) for having checked the Portuguese newspapers for my study on
a daily basis for more than three years. Thanks for more than you know.
This study was undertaken with the joint financial support of Junta Nacional de Investigação Científica e Tecnológica (Ministério do Planeamento e Administração do Território) and the British Council, through the Programa de Formação e Mobilidade de Recursos Humanos. I am thankful and accountable to those who have - directly and/or indirectly - supported these institutions.
For practical reasons, all information in the Portuguese language - used in this work - was translated by the author of the thesis. We do apologise if, in any case, we do not express the full meaning of the original text or speech.
"But back to justice. You said that Marx thought capitalism was an unjust form of society. How would you define a just society?"
"A moral philosopher called John Rawls attempted to say something about it with the following example: Imagine you were a member of a distinguished council whose task it was to make all the laws for a future society"
"I wouldn't mind at all being on that council".
"They are obliged to consider absolutely every detail, because as soon as they reach agreement - and everybody has signed the laws - they will all drop dead."
"Oh..."
"But they will immediately come to life again in the society they have legislated for. The point is that they have no idea which position they will have in society."
"Ah, I see."
Sophie talking to Albert in
Jostein Gaarder's best-seller Sophie's World
List of Tables
Table 1. Contribution to gross domestic product (% of total)
Table 2. European Community financial flows ($m)
Table 3. Illiteracy throughout Salazarism
Table 4. Legislative elections (6 October 1985)
Table 5. Legislative elections (19 July 1987)
Table 6. Legislative elections (6 October 1991)
Table 7. Government tutelage for telecommunications since 1974
Table 8. Government tutelage for the Media since 1974
Table 9. Participation of European countries in RACE
Table 10. Participation of organisations and companies in RACE
Table 11. Portuguese projects financed by STAR
Table 12. Main characteristics of the basic telecommunications network
Table 13. Density of telephone main lines per
100 inhabitants
List of Abbreviations
AACS - Alta Autoridade para a Comunicação Social
ACT - Association of Commercial Televisions
AD - Aliança Democrática
AMCHAM - American Chamber of Commerce
APDC - Associação Portuguesa para o Desenvolvimento das Comunicações
APET - Associação Portuguesa de Espectadores de Televisão
APT - Anglo-Portuguese Telephone Company
APU - Aliança Povo Unido
ATM - Asynchronous Transfer Mode
AT&T - American Telephone and Telegraph Company
ATV - Associação de Telespectadores
BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation
BDT - Bureau for Telecommunications Development
BEUC - European Bureau of Consumers' Unions
B-ISDN - Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network
BT - British Telecom
CATV - Community Antenna Television (now Cable TV)
CCA - Carlos Cruz Audiovisuais
CCIR - Comité Consultatif International de Radiocommunications (ITU)
CCITT - Comité Consultatif International de Téléphonie e Télégraphie (ITU)
CCTS - Comité de Coordination pour Télécommunications par satellites (CEPT)
CDS - Centro Democrático Social
CDU - Coligação Democrática Unitária
CEEP - European Centre of Public Enterprises
CEPT - Conférence Européene des Administrations des Postes et des Télécommunications
CEC - Commission of the European Communities
CEDITC - Comissão para o Estudo do Desenvolvimento Institucional e Tecnológico das Comunicações
CN - Comunicações Nacionais
CNPS - Comissão Nacional do Programa STAR
CoE - Council of Europe
COPA - Committee of Professional Agricultural Organisation
COREPER - Committee of Permanent Representatives (EU Council)
CPRM - Companhia Portuguesa Rádio Marconi
CTT - Correios e Telecomunicações de Portugal
DACS - Digital Automatic Cross-connect System
D.C. - District of Colombia
DECO - Associação Portuguesa para a Defesa do Consumidor
DG - Directorate General (CEU)
DGCP - Direcção Geral de Concorrência e Preços
EBU - European Broadcasting Union
EC - European Community
ECOSOC - Economic and Social Committee (EU)
EEB - European Environmental Bureau
EEC - European Economic Community
ECJ - European Court of Justice
ECSC - European Coal and Steel Community
ECU - European Currency Unit
EFTA - European Free Trade Association
EIB - European Investment Bank
EMU - European Monetary Union
EP - European Parliament
ERDF - European Regional Development Fund
ERM - European Rate Mechanism
ERS - Earth Reception Stations
ESA - European Space Agency
ESC - European Social Committee
ESF - European Social Fund
ESPRIT - European Strategic Programme for Research in Information Technologies
ETS - European Telecommunications Standards
ETSI - European Technical Standards Institute
ETUC - European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC)
EU - European Union
EURATOM - European Atomic Energy Community
EUREKA - European Programme for High Technology Research and Development
EUTELSAT - European Telecommunications Satellite Organisation
FCC - Federal Communications Commission (US)
FT - France Telecom
GATT - General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GFCF - Gross Fixed Capital Formation
GNP - Gross National Product
GSM - Global System for Mobile
HDTV - High-definition Television
IBC - Integrated Broadband Communications
ICCP - Information, Computer, and Communications Policy Committee (OECD)
ICP - Instituto das Comunicações de Portugal
IDN - Integrated Digital Network
IMF - International Monetary Fund
IN - Intelligent Network
INDC - Instituto Nacional de Defesa do Consumidor
INE - Instituto Nacional de Estatística
INESC - Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores
INMARSAT - International Maritime Satellite Organisation
INTELSAT - International Telecommunications Satellite Organisation
IR - International Relations
ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network
ISO - International Standards Organisation
IT - Information Technology
ITC - Independent Television Commission
ITU - International Telecommunications Union
LAN - Local Area Networks
LDCs - Less Developed Countries
LFRs - Less Favoured Regions
m - million
MAC - Standard for enhanced transmission of television by satellite
MAN - Metropolitan Area Networks
MCI - Microwave Communications Incorporated
MCS - Ministério da Comunicação Social
mECU - Millions of ECUs
MEDIA - Measures to Encourage the Development of the European Audio-visual Industry (EU programme)
MEP - Member of the European Parliament
MTC - Ministério dos Transportes e Comunicações
MOPTC - Ministério das Obras Públicas, Transportes e Comunicações
MP - Minister of Parliament
MWTCL - Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company Limited
NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
NBP - Nicolau Breyner Produções
NTT - Nippon Telephone and Telegraph
OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OEEC - Organisation for European Economic Co-operation
ONA - Open Network Architecture (US concept)
ONP - Open Network Provision (EC/EU concept)
OJ - Official Journal (EU)
ORA - Opportunities for Rural Areas
PIDE - Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado
PM - Prime Minister
PS - Partido Socialista
PSACs - Portuguese Speaking African Countries
PSB - Public Service Broadcasting
PSD - Partido Social Democrático
PSN - Partido de Solidariedade Popular
PRD - Partido Renovador Democrático
PT - Portugal Telecom
PTO - Public Telecommunications Operator
PTT - Postal, Telephone and Telegraph Administrations
PVDE - Polícia de Vigilância e Defesa do Estado
R&D - Research and Development
RACE - R&D in Advanced Communications Technologies for Europe
RDP - Rádiodifusão Portuguesa
RETI - Rede Teledifusora Independente
RR - Rádio Renascença
RTP - Rádiotelevisão Portuguesa
RTPi - Rádiotelevisão Portuguesa Internacional
SBT - Serviço Brasileiro de Televisão
SEA - Single European Act
SECS - Secretaria de Estado da Comunicação Social
SEC - Secretaria de Estado das Comunicações
SETC - Secretaria de Estado dos Transportes e Comunicações
SEPCM - Secretaria de Estado da Presidência do Conselho de Ministros
SIC - Sociedade Independente de Comunicação
SMDS - Switched Mulimegabit Data Service
SNI - Secretrariado Nacional de Informação (Propaganda Secretariat under Salazar)
SOG-T - Senior Officials Group for Telecommunications
SPN - Secretariado de Propaganda Nacional (Propaganda Secretariat under Salazar)
STAR - Special Telecommunications Actions for Regional Development
Sub-SECS - Sub-Secretaria de Estado da Comunicação Social
TDP - Teledifusora de Portugal
TLP - Telefones de Lisboa e Porto
TMN - Telecomunicações Móveis Nacionais
TNCs - Trans-National Companies
TP - Telecom Portugal
TVI - Televisão Independente
UHF - Ultra High Frequency
UK - United Kingdom
UN - United Nations
UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UNICE - Union of Industries of the European Community
US - United States
UT3 - Associação Portuguesa de Utilizadores de Telefones, Telecomunicações e Telemática
VHF - Very High Frequency
VAS - Value Added Service
WARC - World Administrative Radio Conference
WATTC World Administrative Telegraph and Telephone Conference
WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organization
WTO - World Trade Organisation
Preface
The empirical research for this study was conducted between 1993 and early 1995 when the social democrats - led by Cavaco Silva - were in their third consecutive term in office (two of which were with an absolute majority). In October 1995, when we were on the latest stages of drafting this thesis, António Guterres's Socialist Party ascended to power, by winning 112 out of 230 parliamentary seats. During the last decade, the social democrats have dominated not only the government but all the state apparatus and their defeat meant that politicians and civil servants who got their positions on the basis of personal confidence were removed (or will be removed). New faces are being appointed to deal with telecommunications and the media at government level. Similarly, public telecommunications and broadcasting companies have just started operating with socialist appointees. It is obviously too soon to reflect on their performance.
Since the social democrats came to power - which incidentally coincided with the Portugal's accession to the European Community - there has been an unprecedented intensification of political intervention in the communications arena. But, although politicians are intervening more frequently than ever before, they have not prepared themselves to adequately respond to the new challenges. During the research for this study, we became aware of the atmosphere of total confusion and disorientation amongst politicians and domestic actors. Politicians were particularly unsure about the relevance of international actors in national communications and about the potential impact of new technological developments. A few domestic actors took full advantage of this political vulnerability and made sure that their interests were served; others clearly did not know how to benefit from the communications policy turmoil and were left behind.
Undoubtedly, the socialists have inherited a very muddled communications scenario. However, their 44% majority might be enough to guarantee a relatively stable four-years term in office. If so, they will have the opportunity to demonstrate that poor quality broadcasting and inadequate telecommunications are not a political inevitability.
Having critically analysed - from a political perspective - what has been done in the telecommunications and broadcasting sectors particularly since the mid-1980's, this study is a contribution to what we believe to be a much needed debate about the development of a coherent and comprehensive national communications policy. Successful policies for these areas depend not solely on the politicians' attainments but on the people's understanding of the political process (at national and regional levels) and on their ability to adequately scrutinise the development and implementation of policies. In Portugal there is plenty of scope for a meaningful debate about the present and the future of domestic communications systems.