Information sources and clothing brands consumption in Mediterranean
countries
A qualitative study of attitudes and behaviour of the Greek and
Portuguese young consumers
Paulo Ribeiro Cardoso, George Tsourvakas e Jorge Santos1
Índice
Abstract
The continuing transformation in a single market has created a need for
exploring common consumer attitudes for clothing brands in Europe. This
paper responds to this need to develop marketing strategies for a single
European market. The purpose of this study is to analyze clothing brands
consumption in Mediterranean countries. Specifically, the study aims to
explore Greek and Portuguese young clothing consumers attitudes and their
likelihood of purchasing these products. Based on two focus groups made in
Greece and in Portugal, the results indicate that there are many similar
factors that influence purchasing clothing choices between the two
countries. Implications and areas for further researches are discussed.
Keywords: Consumer attitudes, clothing brands, young, Mediterranean.
1 Introduction
The intention of this article is to do an exploratory approach to consumer
attitudes and clothing brands purchasing behavior of young Greeks and
Portuguese's. The article makes a comparative study between Greece and
Portugal. Both countries are European, Mediterranean, and entered at the
European Union at the same time. The purpose of the study is to analyze the
attitudes of Mediterranean young consumers towards the clothing brands from
the viewpoint of information sources, shopping behaviour and purchasing
choice criteria.
Academic researches in this field have mainly used quantitative methods. We
decided to use a qualitative method - focus groups - because of the richness
of information that we could obtain. In this study we used college-age
consumers. This target group is very sensitive to fashion clothing and a
good percentage of them purchase their own clothing. The focus groups were
audio taped and videotaped recorded, transcribed and thematic analysis
conducted. A number of themes emerged from the focus groups that were
organized and exposed. Some of these elements have close associations within
issues raised in the literature.
In the first part of this article there is presented a discussion of the
literature background about consumer purchasing behavior toward clothes.
After that is presented the research questions and the description of the
methodology used to examine these questions empirically. Finally is
presented the major findings of this study and the discussion of the
results. Implications for strategy development and areas for further
research are presented at the end of the article.
2 Theoretical background
2.1 Self-concept and group influence
Fashion consciousness is related with individual's interest in the latest
fashion trends. It defines those consumers who are sensitive to the images,
and their physical attractiveness (Wan, Youn, and Fang 2001). Therefore, the
phenomenon is related with fashion awareness, and innovativeness (Manrai et al. 2001).
Fashion consumption is often a manifestation of self-expression (Evans
1989). Clothing brands have identities and images, and consumers seek those
brands that match their self-image or the image they would like to project
to others (Goldsmith, Moore, and Beaudoin 1999). So, the idea of
self-concept is related with the motivation of achieving the ``ideal'' self,
whether in ``private'' or ``social'' context (Evans 1989).
Products that are congruent with individual self-images facilitate the
formation and expression of personal identity. Clothing may be an especially
effective product category in this regard (Nagasawa et al. 1991, Dodd et al. 2000;
Goldsmith 2002; 2000; O'Cass 2000).
Clothing, as a form of nonverbal communication, reflects the wearer's
identity. OnKivisit and Shaw (1987) found that consumers tend to select
products and stores that correspond to their self-concept.
Self-monitoring reflects the degree to which a person observes and controls
his expressive behavior and self-presentation in accordance to cues or
patterns (O'Cass 2001a). Group influence is, in the case, very important.
Dress conformity in line the consumer with their reference group and helps
them gain acceptance by wearing the ``right'' clothes. This reflects a
collectivist value system, where an individual's behavior is influenced such
factors as group norms (Manrai et al. 2001). Therefore, clothing is a mean of
communicating a social identity. Understanding the way people interpret
clothing, and how different groups make different judgments about the same
brand is particularly important to clothing manufacturers and their
advertising agencies (Auty and Elliott 1998).
3 Fashion involvement and clothing choice criteria
Fashion involvement is associated with differences in sensitivity to social
surroundings. Those who are highly motivated to fit into a particular group
will need to be aware of the fashion cues not just of that group but also of
others less desirable groups, so that the ``wrong'' cues may be avoided
(Auty and Elliot 1998).
Clothing has frequently been recognized as a product category likely to
induce high involvement. In general terms, involvement is a state of
motivation, arousal, or interest. Personal relevance is a key concept in
explaining, defining, and operationalizing involvement (Kim, Damhorst and
Lee 2002). Seo, Hatchote and Sweaney (2001, p. 210) define clothing
involvement as ``the amount of time and effort a consumer spends in the
selection of clothing''. Some researchers have examined fashion involvement
as a multidimensional construct that involves fashion innovativeness and
early adoption, interpersonal communication about fashion, fashion knowledge
ability, and fashion awareness (Kim, Damhorst and Lee 2002).
Consumers vary greatly in their knowledge about a product and their degree
of familiarity with it. Knowledge can come from product experiences, such as
ad exposure, interactions with salespeople, information from friends or the
media, previous consumption and usage experiences (O'Cass 2001b).
When consumers form an attitude toward the product they make evaluative
associations between the product and its attributes. Some of that attributes
may be utilitarian - such as durability or comfort - or hedonic - such as
color, fashion ability, or styling (Kim, Damhorst and Lee 2002).
Beaudion, Moore, and Goldsmith (1998) analyzed the attitudes toward buying
domestic and imported apparel products using a selection of attributes: good
fit, durability, ease of care, good price, comfort, quality, choice of
color, attractiveness, fashionableness, brand name, appropriateness for
occasion, and choice of styles.
Brand image of the clothing store is particularly critical. Previous studies
found that some attributes like fashion and style of clothing, store design
and layout, price, quality of the clothes, refund and exchange policy,
company reputation, selection of clothes, knowledge and friendliness of
staff were particularly important to consumers (Birtwistle and Freathy 1998;
Partolese and Dias 2003).
When we are talking about fashion clothing consumption we should take some
dimensions in consideration: fashion consciousness, individual orientation,
status orientation, style opinion leadership, price orientation and shopping
habit (Seo, Hathcote and Sweaney 2001, p.210).
Therefore, shopping involves many dimensions, and it is an important
function of the consumers' choice of clothes (Seo, Hathcote and Sweaney
2001). Informational sources, such as print media, commercial broadcast,
world of mouth, and store displays, are generally used to ascertain
information about clothing. Mass media has been found to be the dominant
information source for the younger age group (Lumpkin 1985; Shim and
Kotsiopoulos 1992).
4 Methodology
Formation of a single market within the EU emphasizes standardization of
marketing in the European environment. Research shows that there are some
similarities among consumers in purchasing behavior and consumption (Kaynak
and Ghauri 1994; Schmidt and Pioch 1996).
Past qualitative studies approached the purchasing behavior for clothing
brands. Jensen and Ostergaard (1998) in their study created a distinction
between two consumer types: the security oriented fashion consumer and the
risk oriented fashion consumer. The two consumer types were described
according to their consumer and purchasing behavior as well as their fashion
media consumption. The data material was gathered in Denmark. The main data
source was a collection of twelve personal interviews and two focus groups
conducted with female consumers between the ages of 20-35.
Hogg, Horne, and Carmichael (1999) made an explorative study that
investigated the adoption of communication in the fraternity and its
influence on the purchase of sailing garments. A total of sixteen interviews
were conducted, eight with male respondents and eight with female.
Qualitative data collection techniques allowed the researcher to explore the
participants understanding of their community and provided ``access to
reality''. As the purpose of qualitative data is to gain insight and
understanding, there was no requirement for statistical rigor in the sample
selection.
In this study we focused on young consumers attitudes in Greece and Portugal
since these nations represent many similarities like the Mediterranean way
of life. The following research questions were examined: What is the
information sources that influence clothing purchasing? How do young
consumers behave when they go shopping for clothes? What are the purchasing
choice criteria for clothing brands?
In our study we intended to do an exploratory approach to the consumption of
clothing brands and some factors that are related with this subject. We used
qualitative approach using focus groups (Morgan 1997). Since we tried to
analyze the relations between Portugal and Greece concerning the subject of
the study, we made a focus group in each country. The questionnaire was
originally drafted in English, translated to Greek and Portuguese.
We used a sample of college-age consumers, from 19 to 23 years old (figure
1). This target group is very sensitive to fashion clothing and a good
percentage of them purchase their own clothing.
Figure 1 - Profile of the interviewees |
Name |
Country |
Age |
Occupation |
Leon |
Greece |
22 |
Accountant and economic studies company employee |
Ioanna |
Greece |
20 |
Educational and Social Policy student |
Smaragda |
Greece |
20 |
Civil Engineer student |
Thetis |
Greece |
20 |
Optometrist student |
Gianna |
Greece |
19 |
Management Company employee |
Joana |
Portugal |
23 |
Management student |
Paulo |
Portugal |
23 |
Communication Sciences student |
Marta |
Portugal |
21 |
Communication Sciences student |
Ana |
Portugal |
23 |
Architecture student |
Luís |
Portugal |
22 |
Management student |
The stages of the research were: the choice of the focus group (young
students who participated voluntary), the general questionnaire, the in
depth discussion, and the observation of each moderator. The focus groups
were recorded and videotaped in order to be achieved the highest validity
and reliability of the data analysis. A number of themes emerged from the
focus groups that were organized and exposed. Some of these elements have
associations with issues raised in the literature. The open-ended discussion
questions asked by the moderators touched the three themes: Information
sources - factors that influence clothing purchasing, shoping behaviour --
and the influence of others, and purchasing choice criteria.
5 Findings and discussion
5.1 Information sources - factors that influence clothing purchasing
The results indicate that advertising and more specific print advertising is
on of the the most important influential factor for young clothing
consumers. The Greek interviewees said that clothing brand advertising
influences consumers: ``we will see something in an advertisement, in a
magazine and proportionally we will act'' (Thestis-GR). The Portuguese group
defended the same opinion.
Other forms of brand diffusion were also mentioned, like the word of mouth:
``there are a lot of brands that become known trough other persons and not
trough advertising'' (Paulo, PT), ``I think that the group has a great
influence in choosing and buying a brand ...A person feels identified by
other person and asks were did he/she bought that piece of clothing and goes
to the same store'' (Luis, PT).
Figure 2 - Information sources - Factors that influence clothing purchasing |
Advertising in magazines
``we will see something in an advertisement, in a magazine and proportionally we will act'' (Thestis-GR) |
Word of mouth
``there are a lot of brands that become known trough other persons'' (Paulo, PT) |
The group
``A person feels identified by other person and asks were did he bought that clothe and goes to the same store'' (Luis, PT) |
Store environment
``the stores and the shop-windows are a certain form of advertising...people pass and see the image the store or the brand wants to give'' (Ana, PT) |
The interviewees talked about advertisements of clothing brands
that had impressed them. The most recalled advertisements by the
Greek interviewees were the ones from Benetton: ``This one with
black and white races, that shows that all the races are equal''
(Smaragda, GR), ``The one which shows many faces, also. It shows
Chinese, black, white, blond, brown'' (Thetis, GR), ``...the
advertisement, which shows refugees who are about to die''
(Ioanna, GR). An advertisement from GUESS was also mentioned,
``...which have the Eiffel Tower as a background, with Letjcia
Casta with little shoes and very beautiful clothes'' (Thetis, GR).
The Portuguese interviewees recalled the advertisements from Levi's ``...the one were the people twisted...'' (Paulo, PT). A campaign from Lois
was also mentioned ``those press advertisements where some organizations of
young people around the world showed photographs of various countries...'' (Ana, PT). An advertisement from Camel ``with images of a safari'' was
also mentioned (Joana, PT).
Some interviewees of both countries considered that the presence of famous
persons in the advertisements is not important to the recall, ``it is not
essential'' (Thetis, GR), and ``does not work'' (Luís, PT). Other
interviewees considered that the presence of famous persons on the
advertisements could be positive for the brand in some circumstances ``in
the case of a new and unknown brand, it helps to create confidence'' (Paulo,
PT). Another individual defended that the use of famous persons can result
as a form of creating awareness for the brand (Marta, PT).
The results show, according to figure 2, that both groups had similar
agreement levels for the different promotional strategies. Both strongly
agreed that they liked interesting advertisements. They were neutral with
the statements that advertisements affected their decisions about clothes.
There were not significant differences between the two Mediterranean
countries, in this topic.
6 Clothing stores
Among the factors that influence clothing purchasing is the store
environment. The fashion stores were mentioned as important forms of brand
communication: ``the stores and the shop-windows are a certain form of
advertising...people pass and see the image the store or the brand wants
to give'' (Ana, PT). Many brands that do not use traditional advertising use
the stores and shop-windows to communicate the brand, for instance: ``Zara
does not use advertising on mass media, however has a strong identity and
everybody knows the brand and the stores'' (Marta, PT).
Some of the Greek interviewees prefer small stores: ``because you can have
better relation with the shopkeepers. I like to have contact with the
storekeepers; I want them to tell me if the clothes suit me'' (Thetis, GR).
Another interviewees are expecting for just a ``technical support from the
staff'' (Leon, GR), ``you don't want to have a person always beside you
asking if you want help'' (Joana, PT). In general the interviewees like to
chose the clothes without any help: ``I want to have the comfort to look
whatever I want by myself and I try on many things'' (Ioanna, GR), ``It is
difficult to try on clothes and have someone near you all the time'' (Leon,
GR). On the other hand, interviewees consider big stores ``impersonal''
(Gianna, GR).
7 Shopping behavior and the influence of others
The Greek interviewees prefer to shop alone, because it gives more freedom
of movements: ``I go to all the shops and I don't want to say all the time
to the person I'm with: come here and let's go there'' (Gianna, GR). Besides
that, to shop alone gives more independence in choice: ``I don't want
anybody to influence me...I have the ability to choose the right clothes
for myself'' (Gianna, GR). In other cases the purchase is made in more than
one phase: ``I go alone to do a market research because I never buy anything
just at the time I see it'' (Thetis, GR). In a second phase the buyer may go
with company ``I do a research alone and when I go shopping I take someone
with me, my mother or some friends'' (Ioanna, GR).
Portuguese individuals also prefer to go alone, because the company ``may
not be useful in the end'' (Marta, PT), or ``because the opinion of others
wont be taken in consideration after all'' (Paulo, PT), or ``because
shopping clothes is very objective and pragmatic thing and should be made
alone'' (Luís, PT).
The research (figure 3) showed that young consumers in both countries prefer
to shop alone, suggesting the shopping was for utility purposes.
Figure 3 - Shopping behavior and the influence of others |
Interviewees prefer to shop alone |
Because it gives more freedom of movements
``I go to all the shops and I don't want to say all the time to the person I have with me, come here and let's go there'' (Gianna, GR) |
Because it gives more independence in choice
``I don't want anybody to influence me...I have the ability to choose the right clothes for myself'' (Gianna, GR) |
Because it is an individual decision
``the opinion of others wont be taken in consideration after all'' (Paulo, PT) |
8 Purchasing choice criteria
The interviewees did not differ greatly on the level of agreement for the
suitability of pricing strategies (figure 4). Good price and economic
shopping seems to be an important factor: ``Lower price clothes are usually
my choice'' (Leon GR).
The comfort was mentioned as important choice criteria.Young Greeks want to
dress ``something practical'' (Thetis, GR). It is fundamental that the
clothes please the young consumers: ``above all, it should suit us''
(Thestis-GR). The Portuguese's clothing consumers mentioned the same.
``Good design'' (Marta, PT) is also an important factor. Interviewees
appreciate clothes that are ``very unusual, very different'' (Thetis, GR).
``Good quality'' (Smaragda, GR) is considered another clothing choice
criteria.
Responses indicate that brand name is not the most important factor: ``it
does not make much sense to get upset over a purchase decision since most
brands are about the same'' (Leon, GR). Very few of the respondents, in
Greece and Portugal, prefer to buy the latest cloth brands. Usually, they
buy clothes with unknown brands very frequently.
Figure 4 - Purchasing choice criteria |
Low price
``Lower price clothes are usually my choice'' (Leon GR). |
Comfort
``something practical'' (Thetis, GR) |
Good design
``clothes that are very unusual, very different'' (Marta, PT) |
Good quality
(Smaragda, GR). |
Brand name is not the most important factor ``it does not make much sense to get upset over a purchase decision since most brands are about the same'' (Leon, GR). |
Some interviewees mentioned that they are influenced only by their
``personal taste'' (Smaragda & Thestis, GR): ``I believe that...if
you know and what suits you, others will too (Gianna, GR). An interviewee
said that ``It depends on where you will go'' (Gianna, GR), other said that
it depends ``on the work you do'' (Leon, GR). Another interviewee mentioned
that ``we are always influenced, clothes are a social thing'' (Paulo, PT).
Other consumer said that she was ``influenced by the magazines'' (Ana, PT).
Most of them buy according to personal needs more than influenced by social
environment.
9 Conclusion and implications
The focus groups gave light to the three main questions of our study: What
are the information sources that influence clothing purchasing? How does
young consumers behave when they go shopping for clothes? What are the
purchasing choice criteria for clothing brands?
The research shows that there are no significant differences between young
Greek and Portuguese consumers in the factors that influence clothing
choices. The results show that advertising in magazines, word of mouth, the
social group and store environment are the main factors that influence
clothing purchasing.
The interviewees of both countries have also very similar views about
shopping behavior and the influence of others. In general, they prefer to
shop alone because it gives than more freedom of movement and more
independence in choice.
Low price, confort, good design and good quality are the four most important
factors in purchasing choice criteria. Nevertheless, brand name is not the
most important factor when buying clothes. Something relevant with other
recent researches about general attitudes towards buying clothes (Leung and
Taylor 2002; Oh and Fiorito 2002).
Compatible with other researches is also the fact that many young consumers
select clothes that fit their image they have of themselves. Clothes have
images and young Mediterranean consumers prefer those clothes that match
their self-image or the image they would like to project to others (Lurie
1981; Sirgy 1982; Onkvisit and Shaw 1987; Malhotra 1988).
The research revealed how Greek and Portuguese young consumers purchase
brand clothes. The findings suggest an overall positive attitude: to buy the
clothes does not necessary imply a higher likelihood of purchasing brands of
these clothes.
The results showed that young Mediterranean consumers obtained fashion
information by magazines. Therefore, advertisements placed in magazines
would be the most suitable choice for marketers.
Another solution could be the attractiveness and good interior store
environment. Marketers may need to provide a good store environment so as to
make them to feel comfortable when they are choosing clothes. This can be
done when there are more mirrors, plenty of space, clean environment, many
choices, etc.
The results showed that young consumers were attracted by low prices, and
they tented to be unwilling to pay higher prices for brand-named clothing.
Marketers may reduce prices of fashionable clothes at the end of the season.
On the other hand they can suggest that higher prices are related with
better quality clothes.
Young's considered designs to be an important factor, therefore marketers
need to give attention of the originality of design. Young buy clothes that
show their personalities and not so much their status. The results show that
brand name was the least important, and what they need more is to provide
their personalities through unique designs. Marketers need to decide how
their clothes can be adapted to the needs of young consumers.
Finally, it is important for marketers to recognize that young fashion
change rapidly, therefore they must adapt quickly to these changes.
Despite the interest of the results discussed, an obvious problem involves
generalization, because the sample is too small. Therefore quantitative
questionnaire analysis of a broader sample would be enough to provide
sufficient statistical power.
The study focuses to factors that have an impact on clothes buying behavior.
Although under certain conditions in Mediterranean Europe the behavior of
young consumers can be predicted by their attitudes towards clothes and
brands, other factors may also have an effect in purchasing behavior.
Therefore values and beliefs need to be examined in the future. Future
research also can be done in other European countries.
10 References
- Beaudoin, P., Moore, M. and Goldsmith, R. (1998). ``Young fashion leaders
and followers attitudes toward American and imported apparel,'' Journal of Product & Brand Management, 7(3),
193-207.
- Birtwistle, G. and Freathy, P. (1998). ``More than just a name above the
shop: A comparison of branding strategies of two UK fashion retailers,''
International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, 26(8), 318-323.
- Dodd, C.A., Clarke, I., Baron, S. and Houston, V. (2000).
``Looking the part': identity, meaning and culture in clothing
purchasing-theoretical considerations,'' Journal
of Fashion Marketing and Management, 4(1), 41-48.
- Evans, M. (1989). ``Consumer behavior towards fashio,'' Europe Journal of Marketing, 23(7), 7-16.
- Goldsmith, R.E. (2002). ``Some personality traits of frequent clothing
buyers,'' Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 6(3), 303-316.
- Goldsmith, R.E. (2000). ``Characteristics of the heavy user of fashionable
clothing,'' Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 8(4), 1-9.
- Goldsmith, R.E., Moore, M., Beaudoin, P. (1999) ``Fashion innovativeness and
self-concept: a replication,'' The Journal of Product & Brand Management, 8(1), 7-18.
- Hogg, G., Horne, S. and Carmichael, D. (1999). ``Fun fashion or just plain
sailing? The consumption of clothing in the sailing community,'' European Advances in Consumer Research, 4,
336-340.
- Jensen, A. and Ostergaard, P. (1998). ``Dressing for security or risk? An
exploratory study of two different ways of consuming fashion,'' European Advances in Consumer Research, 3, 98-103.
- Kaynak, E. and Ghauri, P.N. (Eds) (1995). Consumer Behavior and Marketing Issues in the Europe of Post-1992. London: The Dryden Press.
- Kim, H., Damhorst, M. and Lee, K. (2002). ``Apparel involvement and
advertisement Processing,'' Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 6(3), 277-302.
- Leung, J.W.K. and Taylor, G. (2002). ``Fashion buying criteria of X
generation consumers in Hong Kong,'' Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 6(1), 63-76.
- Lumpkin, J.R. (1985). ``Shopping orientation segmentation of the elderly
consumer,'' Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 13(2), 272-289.
- Lurie, A. (1981). The Language of Clothes. New York, NY: Random House.
- Malhotra, N.K. (1988). ``Self-concept and product choice: An integrated
perspective,'' Journal of Economic Psychology, 9 (March), 1-28.
- Manrai, L., Lascu, D., Manrai, A. and Babb, H. (2001). ``A cross --cultural
comparison of style in Eastern European emerging markets,'' International Marketing Review, 18(3), 270-285.
- Morgan, D.L. (1997). Focus Groups as Qualitative Research. London: Sage.
- Nagasawa, R.H., Hutton, S.S. and Kaiser, S.B. (1991). ``A paradigm for the
study of the social meaning of clothes: complementarily of social-
psychology theories,'' Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 10(1), 53-62.
- O'Cass, A. (2000). ``An assessment of consumers product,
purchase decision, advertising and consumption involvement in
fashion clothing,'' Journal of Economic
Psychology, 21, 545-576.
- O'Cass, A. (2001a). ``Exploring the relationship between self-monitoring,
materialism and product involvement in fashion clothing,'' Asia Pacific Advances in Consumer Research, 4, 183-189.
- O'Cass, A. (2001b). ``An exploratory assessment: fashion clothing
involvement's influence on the development of perceptions of product
knowledge expertise and confidence,'' Asia Pacific Advance in Consumers Research, 4, 288-295.
- Oh, J. and Fiorito, S. (2002). ``Korean women's clothing brand loyalty,''
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 6(3), 206-222.
- OnKvisit, S. and Shaw, J. (1987). ``Self-concept and images congruence: Some
research and managerial implications,'' Journal of Consumer Marketing, 4(1), 13-23.
- Portolese, Dias, L. (2003). ``Generational buying motivations for fashion,''
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 7(1), 78-86.
- Schmidt, R.A. and Pioch, E. (1996). ``Serving the euro-consumer: A marketing
challenge or a case for intervention?,'' Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 14(5), 14-19.
- Seo, J., Hathcote, J. and Sweaney, A. (2001). ``Casual wears shopping
behavior of college men in Georgia, USA,'' Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, 5(3), 208-222.
- Shim, S.Y. and Kotsiopoulos, A. (1992). ``Patronage behavior of apparel
shopping: Part I. Shopping orientations, store attributes, information
sources, and personal Characteristics,'' Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 10(2), 48-57.
- Sirgy, J.M. (1982). ``Self-concept in consumer behavior: A critical
review,'' Journal of Consumer Research, 9(3), 287-300.
- Taylor, S.L. (2002). ``Profiling later aged female teens, mall shopping
behavior and clothing choice,'' Journal of Consumer Marketing, 19(5), 393-408.
- Wan, F., Youn, S. and Fang, T. (2001). ``Passionate surfers
in image-driven consumer culture: Fashion conscious
appearance-savvy people and their way of life,'' Advances
in Consumer Research, 28, 266-274.
- 1
- Paulo Ribeiro Cardoso - Professor of Advertising Communication at the Fernando Pessoa University, Porto, Portugal.
George Tsourvakas - Lecturer of Media Economics at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. Jorge Santos -
Student of Advertising Communication at the Fernando Pessoa University, Porto,Portugal.